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Analysis of Father-son Relationship in Maus

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The Use of Visual Narrative and Formal Structure in Maus: a Survivors Tale by Art Spiegelman

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The Means of Stylistics Used and Their Influence on The Text in Maus

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1991, Art Spiegelman

Comics, Novel, Graphic novel, Comic book, Biography

Vladek Spiegelman, Art Spiegelman, Anja Spiegelman, Mandelbaum, Mala Spiegelman, Françoise Mouly

"Maus" is a graphic novel written by Art Spiegelman and is based on the experiences of his father, Vladek Spiegelman, a Holocaust survivor. The novel is a unique and poignant exploration of the Holocaust, using the medium of comic art to depict the harrowing events. Inspired by his father's firsthand accounts, Art Spiegelman tells the story of Vladek's life during World War II, including his time in Auschwitz concentration camp and his struggles to survive and protect his family. "Maus" stands out for its innovative portrayal of the characters as anthropomorphic animals, with Jews depicted as mice and Nazis as cats. This metaphorical representation adds depth to the narrative, allowing readers to engage with the story on multiple levels.

The story begins with Art's attempts to understand his father's past and the impact it has had on their relationship. Vladek shares his harrowing journey, from the rise of anti-Semitism in Poland to the Nazi occupation, the horrors of Auschwitz, and his eventual liberation. Throughout the novel, Art grapples with the weight of his father's story and the responsibility of representing it truthfully. The narrative not only explores the brutality and dehumanization of the Holocaust but also delves into the complex dynamics between father and son, the trauma of survivors, and the challenges of memory and storytelling.

"Maus" is primarily set in two distinct time periods: the present-day 1970s in New York City and the past during World War II in Poland and various concentration camps. In the present, the story takes place in the urban landscape of New York City, depicting the everyday lives of Art Spiegelman and his father, Vladek. The city serves as a backdrop for Art's interviews with his father, as well as their interactions and struggles in dealing with the lingering effects of the Holocaust. The past setting of the narrative is situated in Poland during the rise of Nazi Germany and the subsequent occupation. It portrays the stark realities of life under Nazi rule, the ghettos, and the horrors of concentration camps such as Auschwitz. The grim and oppressive atmosphere of these settings highlights the extreme circumstances faced by Vladek and countless others during the Holocaust.

One of the primary themes is the trauma and its intergenerational effects. The graphic novel delves into the psychological impact of the Holocaust on both survivors and their children. It portrays the burden of memory, guilt, and the struggle to reconcile personal experiences with the larger historical context. Another significant theme is the power of storytelling and the role of art in representing history. Art Spiegelman employs the medium of comics to convey the complex and emotional story of his father's survival. Through visual imagery and the use of anthropomorphic animals as characters, the narrative challenges traditional depictions of the Holocaust and highlights the capacity of art to engage with difficult subject matter. Additionally, "Maus" explores themes of prejudice, dehumanization, and the consequences of unchecked bigotry. It delves into the ways in which individuals grapple with their identities, navigate social hierarchies, and confront prejudice in a world scarred by the Holocaust.

One prominent literary device is symbolism. Art Spiegelman utilizes anthropomorphic animals to represent different groups of people, with Jews portrayed as mice and Nazis as cats. This metaphorical approach adds depth and complexity to the storytelling, allowing readers to grasp the power dynamics and dehumanization inherent in the Holocaust. For example, the use of mice to represent Jews underscores their vulnerability and prey status in the face of Nazi persecution. Another literary device employed in "Maus" is foreshadowing. Through subtle hints and clues, Spiegelman foreshadows future events, creating suspense and anticipation. An example of this is when Art's father, Vladek, mentions his first wife and children who died during the war, foreshadowing the tragic fate that awaits them. Additionally, the use of flashbacks is a significant literary device in "Maus." The narrative frequently shifts between the present and past, offering glimpses into Vladek's experiences during the Holocaust. These flashbacks provide crucial context, deepen character development, and offer a layered understanding of the historical events. Moreover, the graphic novel format itself is a distinct literary device in "Maus." The combination of visuals and text allows for a unique storytelling experience, providing visual cues and imagery that enhance the emotional impact of the narrative. The illustrations contribute to the overall narrative structure and create a powerful synergy between the words and images.

First and foremost, Art Spiegelman's groundbreaking work revolutionized the graphic novel medium. "Maus" demonstrated the artistic and narrative potential of the graphic format, elevating it from mere entertainment to a serious and respected literary form. Its success opened doors for other graphic novels to explore complex themes and historical events. In terms of Holocaust representation, "Maus" introduced a new perspective by using anthropomorphic animals to depict the characters, reflecting the dehumanization and brutality of the Holocaust itself. This innovative approach challenged traditional portrayals and expanded the possibilities of Holocaust storytelling. Moreover, "Maus" sparked critical discussions about trauma, memory, and the transmission of history. Spiegelman's exploration of his father's experiences as a Holocaust survivor highlighted the intergenerational impact of trauma and the complexities of memory. This prompted a reevaluation of how personal narratives and collective memory shape our understanding of historical events.

1. "Maus" was the first graphic novel to win a Pulitzer Prize. In 1992, Art Spiegelman's groundbreaking work received the Pulitzer Prize Special Citation, marking a significant moment in the recognition of graphic novels as a legitimate form of literature. 2. "Maus" has been translated into over 30 languages, reaching a global audience and resonating with readers worldwide. Its powerful storytelling and unique visual style have transcended cultural boundaries, making it a universally acclaimed and widely read work.

Maus is an important subject for an essay due to its exceptional contribution to literature and its innovative narrative style. The graphic novel by Art Spiegelman delves into the Holocaust and its aftermath, presenting a poignant and deeply personal account of the author's father's experiences as a survivor. By using anthropomorphic animal characters to represent different groups, Spiegelman creates a powerful metaphorical framework that explores complex themes of identity, trauma, memory, and the impact of historical events on individuals and generations. Writing an essay about Maus provides an opportunity to delve into the unique literary and artistic techniques employed by Spiegelman, such as the use of panels, visual symbolism, and interweaving narratives. It allows for an examination of the graphic novel's impact on the acceptance and recognition of the genre as a form of serious literature. Additionally, an essay on Maus can shed light on the Holocaust's ongoing relevance, the responsibility of memory, and the power of storytelling in confronting historical atrocities. Overall, Maus prompts critical analysis and deep reflection, making it a compelling and important subject for an essay.

"I cannot forget it...tonight, you have made me hate you, and the whole ghetto, because of this ridiculous uniform you're wearing!" "Friends? Your friends...if you lock them together in a room with no food for a week...then you could see what it is, friends!" "I'm tired of hearing about the Holocaust!" "Richieu, my brother, where are you now?" "To die, it's easy...but you have to struggle for life!"

1. Rothberg, M., & Spiegelman, A. (1994). " We Were Talking Jewish": Art Spiegelman's" Maus" as" Holocaust" Production. Contemporary Literature, 35(4), 661-687. (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1208703) 2. Young, J. E. (1998). The Holocaust as Vicarious Past: Art Spiegelman's" Maus" and the Afterimages of History. Critical Inquiry, 24(3), 666-699. (https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/448890?journalCode=ci) 3. Orbán, K. (2007). Trauma and Visuality: Art Spiegelman's Maus and In the Shadow of No Towers. Representations, 97(1), 57-89. (https://online.ucpress.edu/representations/article-abstract/97/1/57/95740/Trauma-and-Visuality-Art-Spiegelman-s-Maus-and-In) 4. Tabachnick, S. E. (1993). Of Maus and memory: the structure of Art Spiegelman's graphic novel of the Holocaust. Word & Image, 9(2), 154-162. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02666286.1993.10435484) 5. Tabachnick, S. E. (2004). The religious meaning of Art Spiegelman's Maus. Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies, 22(4), 1-13. (https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/17/article/170723/summary) 6. Spiegelman, A. (2008). Maus I & II. Historia de un sobreviviente: Y aquí comenzaron mis problemas. (https://www.tpet.com/content/PHSamples/MausRJs.pdf) 7. Knowles, S. (2015). The postcolonial graphic novel and trauma: From Maus to Malta. Postcolonial traumas: memory, narrative, resistance, 83-96. (https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137526434_6)

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by Art Spiegelman

Maus essay questions.

Though the author was born in Sweden after the end of the Holocaust, the events have nevertheless had a profound effect on his life. Discuss the nature of these effects and why the Holocaust remains such a formative event.

What is the significance of the author's decision to portray people of different races and nationalities as different animals? What effect does this have on the understanding and impact of the story?

Maus is written in the rather unconventional form of a graphic novel. Is this format an effective means of telling a Holocaust narrative? How might it differ from a more conventional Holocaust narrative?

To what degree was Vladek's survival based on luck, and to what degree was his survival based on his considerable resourcefulness?

To what extent are Vladek's aggravating personality traits a product of his experiences during the Holocaust?

Discuss Art's portrayal of his father. Is it a fair portrayal? What feelings does Art have about this portrayal?

Throughout Maus , Art is consumed with guilt. Discuss these different forms of guilt. How do they relate to one another? How do they differ?

The second chapter of Book II of Maus begins with a third level of narrative, which takes place in 1987, nine years after Art began working on Maus and five years after the death of his father. What is the purpose of this narrative, and what does it tell us about the author's relationship with his father and with the Holocaust?

Compare Vladek's marriage to Mala with his previous marriage to Anja. Why is Vladek's relationship with Mala so contentious, while his relationship with Anja was so filled with love?

Though Maus focuses largely on the Jewish people, the narrative generally avoids issues of religion. To what extent are the major characters religious? What role does religion play in their lives?

MAUS Questions and Answers

The Question and Answer section for MAUS is a great resource to ask questions, find answers, and discuss the novel.

Page 32, “Right away, we went.” Where are Vladek and Anja going and why?

Right away, we went. The sanitarium was inside Czechoslovakia, one of the most expensive and beautiful in the world.

Anja, Vladek's wife and Spiegelman's mother, went to a sanatorium in Czechoslovakia in 1938.

Vladek wants to go to Hungary in order to escape the danger and uncertainty of his life, as well as Anja's. Hungary represents hope and safety.

The visual device used to show the difference betweem Vladek and Anja is that Anja has a tail protruding from under her coat, a detail that emphasizes her Jewish identity.

Study Guide for MAUS

MAUS study guide contains a biography of Art Spiegelman, literature essays, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis.

• MAUS Summary
• Character List

Essays for MAUS

MAUS essays are academic essays for citation. These papers were written primarily by students and provide critical analysis of MAUS by Art Spiegelman.

• Stylistic Detail of MAUS and Its Effect on Reader Attachment
• Using Animals to Divide: Illustrated Allegory in Maus and Terrible Things
• Father-Son Conflict in MAUS
• Anthropomorphism and Race in Maus
• A Postmodernist Reading of Spiegelman's Maus

Lesson Plan for MAUS

• About the Author
• Study Objectives
• Common Core Standards
• Introduction to MAUS
• Relationship to Other Books
• Bringing in Technology
• Notes to the Teacher
• Related Links
• MAUS Bibliography

Wikipedia Entries for MAUS

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English Works

Maus: A student’s essay, written with my assistance

The Complete Maus shows that the  Holocaust experience affects the next generation as much as it affects the people who lived through it. Do you agree?

In his comic story, Maus, Pulitzer prize winner Art Spiegelman writes about his parents’ experiences in Nazi Germany. Spiegelman uses various interview and graphic-style techniques to capture the horror of the Nazi “experiment” whereby up to 6 million Jews were killed in gas chambers in concentration camps. Whilst Vladek and Anja both survived, they were psychologically scarred. Throughout the interviews with his father, Vladek, and his father’s narrative recounts, Spiegelman reveals the extent of  their trauma which inhibits family life and relationships. The emotional and psychological divide between Art and Vladek is further tarnished by the deaths of Richieu and Anja.  The father’s development of a variety of obsessive neuroses also become another burden in the father-son relationship.

Throughout the graphic novel, Spiegelman  depicts a variety of emotional and communication barriers, which he suggests may have originated from Vladek’s Holocaust experiences.  Vladek constantly offers parental advice to Art that is often based on his experiences as a symbolic mouse in pinstriped pyjamas and yet this advice leads to, rather than, solves many of their interpersonal problems. Such emotional barriers, which appear to affect each of the men differently, are foregrounded in the ‘Prologue’. After Art was deserted and humiliated by his friends whilst rollerskating on the street, his father tells him unsympathetically and dismissively,  “Friends? Your friends? If you lock them together in a room with no food for a week … then you could see what it is, friends!” Vladek continues to saw the piece of  wood, suggesting that he is always fixing something, as he did during his war-time experiences. He doesn’t appear to be paying much attention to Art which reinforces his emotional indifference. This is a typical moment when Vladek views friendship through the lens of  life-and-death actions,  and he dismisses Art’s eight-year-old problems. In turn, he makes Art’s problems seem insignificant compared to his own. From Vladek’s perspective, his emotional detachment from his son, which could be a coping mechanism developed from his war experiences, alienates him from his son. From Spiegelman’s perspective, he does not find the psychological solace that he is searching.

Whilst Vladek appears indifferent and detached, Art appears to suffer from Vladek’s constant comparison between his father’s monumental, and his own insignificant, life experiences.  This comparison reinforces the barriers between each and exacerbates the emotional distance.  It is evident that Art agonises over these moments during his childhood, because later in Spiegelman’s typical question and answer style interview, he admits to his psychologist, Pavel, who is also a Czech Jew and a survivor of Auschwitz, that “mainly I remember arguing with him and being told that I couldn’t do anything as well as he could… No matter what I accomplished it doesn’t seem like much compared to surviving Auschwitz.”  Owing to Vladek’s tendency to belittle Art’s experiences, Art constantly feels as though he will never impress his father and develops feelings of inferiority. IN his own way, Vladek appears to inflate the significance of his own experiences in a bid to overcompensate for the fact that for most of his life he was degraded by the Nazis.  As Pavel says, “Maybe your father needed to show that he was always right — that he could always survive — because he felt guilty about surviving”.  The symbolic depiction of the demoralised Jews as vulnerable and powerless mice that are tortured by the vicious cat captures Vladek’s sense of  impotence and despair.  From Vladek’s perspective, this sense of impotence is, inadvertently, displaced onto his son. From Art’s perspective, he ironically, feels belittled, much as the father was and neither can overcome their distance.

It is evident in Maus that Vladek is constantly haunted by a sense of survivor guilt.  It is also apparent that the father transfers this guilt onto Art, which surfaces in both direct and indirect ways. As a consequence, this guilt exacerbates the psychological barriers between then and leads to displaced and thwarted emotions. As Pavel tells his patient,  if Vladek survives, 6 million Jews were killed, and this has resulted in constant anxiety. In  one comic caption, Pavel states, “Because he felt guilty about surviving … he took his guilt out on you, where it was safe…on the real survivor.” (p 204). Graphically, Art depicts Vladek’s guilt by using a palimpsest technique, which is a literal graphical bleeding from past to present, This technique  reveals Vladek’s displaced anxiety. For example, in a panel, where the family is driving back from the supermarket after attempting to return the unfinished box of special K, Vladek recalls the deaths of the four girls who were scapegoated for their subversion. This frame shows the literal blend of time zones. In the frame, Art and Francoise are in the car listening to Vladek’s recount. In the same frame, there is an image of four sets of legs hanging from a tree which presumably belong to Anja’s four friends who “blew up a crematorium”. Spiegelman graphically suggests that Vladek is scarred by the horror of his past and it is this horror that leads to numerous psychological problems.

(In another depiction, four pairs of legs are also dangling from a rope.  In this case, Nahum Cohn and his son, who traded goods without a coupon, hang from the scaffold.  Vladek suggests that such assistance was critical to his survival and yet it led to the deaths of others. Spiegelman uses an eight-frame page consisting of a five-frame present-time overlay. In the above frame, the four mice, dressed in suits,   “hanged there for one full week”. Vladek’s  prominent caption refers to the tactics of intimidation used by the “cats”  to scare the “mice” into submission.  In the bottom frame, Spiegelman uses the image of legs hanging in mid air to give an impression that anyone who subverted the system would suffer a similar fate. In doing so, Spiegelman enhances the image of the dead Jews and the brutality of the cats that continues to haunt both father and son.)

Furthermore, Vladek’s guilt often surfaces in a variety of neurotic compulsive behaviours and these interfere with his ability to be a good father.  Because of these behaviours, he cannot connect on an emotional level with his son.  Vladek is neurotic about food, disease, death and profligacy. He compulsively organises his pills, seeks to save every penny, and fixes everything through his own abilities. Vladek refuses to hire anyone to fix household problems. Spiegelman suggests that his entrepreneurial skills were the reason he stayed alive in the labour camps. Vladek also believes that he survived because ‘I saved   “Ever since Hitler I don’t like to throw out even a crumb”. In a humorous way, this reinforces the stereotype of the stingy Jew. Mala says,” it causes his physical pain  to part with money”. In a revealing retort, Vladek adamantly states: “I cannot forget it” which sums up his attitude to most daily life occurrences. He simply cannot forget the stress of experiences such as staying in  Mrs Motonowa’s cellar, sleeping with rats and living off candy for three days. They learned to be “happy even to have these conditions.” Whilst Spiegelman sets up the stereotypical miserly Jew for ridicule, there is a sense that readers can truly understand the basis of Vladek’s neuroses which are constantly displaced. Art believes that he must bear the brunt of these disorders which make it almost impossible for Art to have a normal and calm relationship with his father.

Spiegelman depicts many second generation holocaust survivors struggling with the agony of loss experienced by their traumatised parents. Many parents are paralysed by grief,  and their suffering and agony interfere with their parenting abilities.  In Art’s case, he is swamped by Anja’s and Vladek’s grief for their lost son, Richieu. Spiegelman depicts Art’s jealousy and insecurity that are a consequence of  a perverse type of sibling rivalry with his deceased “ghost” brother. Richieu died at age “five or six” during the holocaust by swallowing a poisonous pill given to him by a desperate carer, Tosha,  who feared death in the gas chambers. Spiegelman refers to a large, “blurry” photograph that hangs above Art’s parents’ bed.  The caption states, “It’s spooky having sibling rivalry with a snapshot!” During a rare conversation with Francoise in the car,  Art divulges his vulnerability and his position of disadvantage: “The photo never threw tantrums or got into any kind of trouble…it was an ideal kid and I was a pain in the ass. I couldn’t compete.”

Not only does Art feel inferior to his sibling; Spiegelman also suggests that Art, much like Vladek, is suffering from his own perverse form of survivor guilt.   In a forlorn and an indignant tone he also anticipates his parents’ disappointment, “He’d have become a doctor, and married a wealthy Jewish girl..the creep”. Vladek inadvertently refers to Art as Richieu in the final frame of the graphic novel. “I’m tired from talking, Richieu, and it’s enough stories for now.”  This reveals the extent of Vladek’s continued sadness. The unbordered gravestone of Anja and Vladek at the end also serves as a memorial to the Jewish victims,  Art suggests that Richieu’s death also contributes to Anja’s suicide and the complicated and suffocating emotions between mother and son.

The experiences of the holocaust also traumatised Art’s mother Anja which creates emotional problems between mother and son.  These emotions surface in different ways for each of them. Feeble and distraught at the loss of Richieu, Anja emotionally strangles Art as she fears losing another son.  As a consequence, Art stifles his own emotional response towards his mother, which leads to guilt. The darkness and horror of “Prisoner on the hell planet” reveals that Art feels as though he should have done more to keep his mother alive.. The word ‘Hell’ in the title instils a feeling of dread. The ghost-like thriller of the large black monster and the abstract drawings of the skull and the bony hands depict Art as the hideous victim of a grisly perfect crime story.  In a  clever role reversal, Spiegelman depicts Vladek as a heartbroken victim, weeping on the floor, which shows his ghostly horror at the fact that he has failed to fulfil his promise to Anja that “you’ll see that  together we’ll survive”.  This is also despite the parallel narrative of the love story. Vladek’s eyes are black and large and there are no pupils. Art wears the pin-striped Jewish prisoner uniform which features prominently in the graphics related to the concentration camp.  It also shows the beginning of Art’s and Vladek’s psychological distance towards each other, compounded by the guilt of the mother’s suicide.  As an incensed Art says, “I was expected to comfort HIM”  Art becomes paranoid that every guest and friend thought it was his fault. Art was always resentful of how Anja ‘tightens the umbilical cord’. It is apparent that Anja does this because she does not wish to lose another son. However, Art constantly resists her love. He says, ” Well mom, if you’re listening … congratulations! … you’ve committed the perfect crime.” Graphically, Art’s hand grasps the door of an enormous cage as he accuses the mother of placing him in an impossible emotional situation: “You put me here…shorted all my circuits…cut my nerve endings…and crossed my wires!…you murdered me mommy and you left me here to take the rap!!!” Anja’s death, then, also exacerbates the emotional distance between Vladek and Art which is based on guilt.

In Maus, Spiegelman leaves readers in no doubt that the children of the holocaust survivors continue to suffer from the displaced trauma of their parents. Many children  experience and encounter similar struggles. Throughout his discussions with his father, Art seeks to uncover the burden and the pain that Art continues to carry, and which is passed onto his son.  This trauma affects Vladek’s ability to be a loving and supportive father and he fails to provide the emotional support for which Art yearns. Finally, The Complete Maus highlights the way second generation holocaust survivors struggle with trauma, the agony of loss and the depression and displaced anxiety which haunts their parents.

Return to Maus: Notes by Dr Jennifer Minter, English Works

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Art Spiegelman

Artie Spiegelman , a young Jewish-American cartoonist, arrives for a visit at the home of his father, Vladek , after a long estrangement. Vladek is sick and unhappy, stuck in a bad marriage to a resentful woman named Mala , and still mourning the loss of his first wife, Anja , to suicide ten years earlier. Artie and Vladek have a tense relationship, but Artie has determined to write a comic book about his father’s life. Vladek, a Polish Jew who immigrated to New York after World War II, is a Holocaust survivor. Along with Anja, and most of their family members, he endured life in the ghettos and concentration camps of Nazi-occupied Poland.

Through a series of interviews over more than two years, Vladek tells Artie his stories. He begins in prewar Poland, when he meets and marries the brilliant, charming daughter of a wealthy manufacturer: Anja. The two live happily together in the city of Sosnowiec, surrounded by their families. When war breaks out in 1939, Vladek is called to the front as a Polish soldier. Vladek is captured by the Germans as a prisoner of war, and spends months in a forced labor camp before escaping and returning home to Sosnowiec. Reunited with his family — which includes, by this time, a young son named Richieu — Vladek finds that the German invasion has had a dramatic impact on the situation of Poland’s Jews. In the months following his return to Sosnowiec, violence against Jews becomes a common occurrence. Both German Nazis and Christian Poles are eager to marginalize and dehumanize Jews. Soon, Jews are forced to give up their homes and move into ghettos: segregated neighborhoods where they face constant surveillance, as well as random violence, from soldiers and police.

As more Jews are herded into ghettos, the Nazis begin deporting people to concentration camps — most notably, to Auschwitz. At this point, people are only beginning to learn the extent of the atrocities perpetuated in these camps: starvation, forced labor, and — most shocking — the mass murder, in gas chambers designed to maximize efficiency, of Jewish prisoners from all across Europe. The Spiegelmans send Richieu to a different ghetto, in the care of his Aunt Tosha , where they believe he will be safer. This decision turns out to be disastrous. When Tosha learns that the Nazis are planning to “liquidate” her ghetto and send all its residents to Auschwitz, she poisons herself and Richieu — as well as her daughter and niece, who are also in her care — to avoid the horrible fate of the gas chambers.

Eventually, the Nazis decide to “liquidate” the Srodula ghetto, where Vladek and Anja are living. Though Vladek has lost his parents and most of his siblings by this time, Anja still has her parents and her nephew, Lolek . The family manages to evade capture for a short time, but a stranger soon discovers them and turns them over to the Nazis. Within a few weeks, the family has been completely splintered. Mr . and Mrs. Zylberberg are sent to their deaths in Auschwitz, and Lolek — who believes his skills as an electrician will make him valuable, and so prevent the Nazis from killing him — surrenders himself for transport to the camp soon after. Vladek and Anja manage to evade capture by hiding out in bunkers and the homes of sympathetic Polish Christians, but they are caught after Vladek makes plans to flee the country with the help of Polish smugglers, who turn them over to the Nazis. After years of hiding, Vladek and Anja are sent to Auschwitz.

In Auschwitz, Vladek — separated from Anja, who is sent to nearby Birkenau — uses his exceptional charm and resourcefulness to win himself jobs as an English tutor to one of the guards, then as a tinsmith, and eventually as a shoemaker. In these positions, he is treated better than common prisoners, and saves himself from some of the back-breaking labor forced on his fellow prisoners. He does his best to protect Anja from afar, who is small and frail and struggling to survive in Birkenau. They are in the camps for ten months before the Germans, facing a devastating attack from the Soviet Union and eager to escape Poland, evacuate Auschwitz-Birkenau and relocate its prisoners to different camps within the German borders. Vladek is sent to Dachau, while Anja goes through other camps, including Gross-Rosen and Ravensbrück. After they are separated, Vladek assumes Anja is dead. He is amazed and overjoyed when — after the end of the war and the liberation of surviving Jewish prisoners, when nearly everyone they know has been killed — they are reunited in Sosnowiec. A difficult and sad future lies ahead for them, but Vladek ends his story in a moment of triumph, as they embrace for the first time after months of separation.

As Artie narrates his father’s memories of the war, he constructs a parallel narrative of his own experiences collecting those memories: his interviews with Vladek, which often dredge up feelings of resentment and disappointment that have shaped their relationship; and his experiences shepherding his father, whose health becomes increasingly poor as they delve deeper into his stories, through the difficulties of old age. As the book draws to a close, it becomes clear that Vladek is nearing death. His weak heart and lungs leave him frail and dependent. The complicated love he shares with his son comes to a head during a summer vacation in the Catskill Mountains, after Mala abandons him and Artie, along with his wife Françoise, is called upon to care for him. Though their relationship never reaches a tidy conclusion, the two men develop a deeper and more compassionate understanding during their hours of interviews and visits. Though still uncomfortable and uncertain about his relationship with his parents, Artie offers Maus as a gesture of love and forgiveness toward them — which, though painful and flawed, is sincere and deeply felt.

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