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Scientific Hypotheses: Writing, Promoting, and Predicting Implications

Armen yuri gasparyan, lilit ayvazyan, ulzhan mukanova, marlen yessirkepov, george d kitas.

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Address for Correspondence: Armen Yuri Gasparyan, MD. Departments of Rheumatology and Research and Development, Dudley Group NHS Foundation Trust (Teaching Trust of the University of Birmingham, UK), Russells Hall Hospital, Pensnett Road, Dudley, West Midlands DY1 2HQ, UK. [email protected]

Corresponding author.

Received 2019 Sep 2; Accepted 2019 Oct 28; Collection date 2019 Nov 25.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ ) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Scientific hypotheses are essential for progress in rapidly developing academic disciplines. Proposing new ideas and hypotheses require thorough analyses of evidence-based data and predictions of the implications. One of the main concerns relates to the ethical implications of the generated hypotheses. The authors may need to outline potential benefits and limitations of their suggestions and target widely visible publication outlets to ignite discussion by experts and start testing the hypotheses. Not many publication outlets are currently welcoming hypotheses and unconventional ideas that may open gates to criticism and conservative remarks. A few scholarly journals guide the authors on how to structure hypotheses. Reflecting on general and specific issues around the subject matter is often recommended for drafting a well-structured hypothesis article. An analysis of influential hypotheses, presented in this article, particularly Strachan's hygiene hypothesis with global implications in the field of immunology and allergy, points to the need for properly interpreting and testing new suggestions. Envisaging the ethical implications of the hypotheses should be considered both by authors and journal editors during the writing and publishing process.

Keywords: Bibliographic Databases, Peer Review, Writing, Research Ethics, Hypothesis, Impact

INTRODUCTION

We live in times of digitization that radically changes scientific research, reporting, and publishing strategies. Researchers all over the world are overwhelmed with processing large volumes of information and searching through numerous online platforms, all of which make the whole process of scholarly analysis and synthesis complex and sophisticated.

Current research activities are diversifying to combine scientific observations with analysis of facts recorded by scholars from various professional backgrounds. 1 Citation analyses and networking on social media are also becoming essential for shaping research and publishing strategies globally. 2 Learning specifics of increasingly interdisciplinary research studies and acquiring information facilitation skills aid researchers in formulating innovative ideas and predicting developments in interrelated scientific fields.

Arguably, researchers are currently offered more opportunities than in the past for generating new ideas by performing their routine laboratory activities, observing individual cases and unusual developments, and critically analyzing published scientific facts. What they need at the start of their research is to formulate a scientific hypothesis that revisits conventional theories, real-world processes, and related evidence to propose new studies and test ideas in an ethical way. 3 Such a hypothesis can be of most benefit if published in an ethical journal with wide visibility and exposure to relevant online databases and promotion platforms.

Although hypotheses are crucially important for the scientific progress, only few highly skilled researchers formulate and eventually publish their innovative ideas per se . Understandably, in an increasingly competitive research environment, most authors would prefer to prioritize their ideas by discussing and conducting tests in their own laboratories or clinical departments, and publishing research reports afterwards. However, there are instances when simple observations and research studies in a single center are not capable of explaining and testing new groundbreaking ideas. Formulating hypothesis articles first and calling for multicenter and interdisciplinary research can be a solution in such instances, potentially launching influential scientific directions, if not academic disciplines.

The aim of this article is to overview the importance and implications of infrequently published scientific hypotheses that may open new avenues of thinking and research.

Despite the seemingly established views on innovative ideas and hypotheses as essential research tools, no structured definition exists to tag the term and systematically track related articles. In 1973, the Medical Subject Heading (MeSH) of the U.S. National Library of Medicine introduced “Research Design” as a structured keyword that referred to the importance of collecting data and properly testing hypotheses, and indirectly linked the term to ethics, methods and standards, among many other subheadings.

One of the experts in the field defines “hypothesis” as a well-argued analysis of available evidence to provide a realistic (scientific) explanation of existing facts, fill gaps in public understanding of sophisticated processes, and propose a new theory or a test. 4 A hypothesis can be proven wrong partially or entirely. However, even such an erroneous hypothesis may influence progress in science by initiating professional debates that help generate more realistic ideas. The main ethical requirement for hypothesis authors is to be honest about the limitations of their suggestions. 5

EXAMPLES OF INFLUENTIAL SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESES

Daily routine in a research laboratory may lead to groundbreaking discoveries provided the daily accounts are comprehensively analyzed and reproduced by peers. The discovery of penicillin by Sir Alexander Fleming (1928) can be viewed as a prime example of such discoveries that introduced therapies to treat staphylococcal and streptococcal infections and modulate blood coagulation. 6 , 7 Penicillin got worldwide recognition due to the inventor's seminal works published by highly prestigious and widely visible British journals, effective ‘real-world’ antibiotic therapy of pneumonia and wounds during World War II, and euphoric media coverage. 8 In 1945, Fleming, Florey and Chain got a much deserved Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery that led to the mass production of the wonder drug in the U.S. and ‘real-world practice’ that tested the use of penicillin. What remained globally unnoticed is that Zinaida Yermolyeva, the outstanding Soviet microbiologist, created the Soviet penicillin, which turned out to be more effective than the Anglo-American penicillin and entered mass production in 1943; that year marked the turning of the tide of the Great Patriotic War. 9 One of the reasons of the widely unnoticed discovery of Zinaida Yermolyeva is that her works were published exclusively by local Russian (Soviet) journals.

The past decades have been marked by an unprecedented growth of multicenter and global research studies involving hundreds and thousands of human subjects. This trend is shaped by an increasing number of reports on clinical trials and large cohort studies that create a strong evidence base for practice recommendations. Mega-studies may help generate and test large-scale hypotheses aiming to solve health issues globally. Properly designed epidemiological studies, for example, may introduce clarity to the hygiene hypothesis that was originally proposed by David Strachan in 1989. 10 David Strachan studied the epidemiology of hay fever in a cohort of 17,414 British children and concluded that declining family size and improved personal hygiene had reduced the chances of cross infections in families, resulting in epidemics of atopic disease in post-industrial Britain. Over the past four decades, several related hypotheses have been proposed to expand the potential role of symbiotic microorganisms and parasites in the development of human physiological immune responses early in life and protection from allergic and autoimmune diseases later on. 11 , 12 Given the popularity and the scientific importance of the hygiene hypothesis, it was introduced as a MeSH term in 2012. 13

Hypotheses can be proposed based on an analysis of recorded historic events that resulted in mass migrations and spreading of certain genetic diseases. As a prime example, familial Mediterranean fever (FMF), the prototype periodic fever syndrome, is believed to spread from Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean region and all over Europe due to migrations and religious prosecutions millennia ago. 14 Genetic mutations spearing mild clinical forms of FMF are hypothesized to emerge and persist in the Mediterranean region as protective factors against more serious infectious diseases, particularly tuberculosis, historically common in that part of the world. 15 The speculations over the advantages of carrying the MEditerranean FeVer (MEFV) gene are further strengthened by recorded low mortality rates from tuberculosis among FMF patients of different nationalities living in Tunisia in the first half of the 20th century. 16

Diagnostic hypotheses shedding light on peculiarities of diseases throughout the history of mankind can be formulated using artefacts, particularly historic paintings. 17 Such paintings may reveal joint deformities and disfigurements due to rheumatic diseases in individual subjects. A series of paintings with similar signs of pathological conditions interpreted in a historic context may uncover mysteries of epidemics of certain diseases, which is the case with Ruben's paintings depicting signs of rheumatic hands and making some doctors to believe that rheumatoid arthritis was common in Europe in the 16th and 17th century. 18

WRITING SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESES

There are author instructions of a few journals that specifically guide how to structure, format, and make submissions categorized as hypotheses attractive. One of the examples is presented by Med Hypotheses , the flagship journal in its field with more than four decades of publishing and influencing hypothesis authors globally. However, such guidance is not based on widely discussed, implemented, and approved reporting standards, which are becoming mandatory for all scholarly journals.

Generating new ideas and scientific hypotheses is a sophisticated task since not all researchers and authors are skilled to plan, conduct, and interpret various research studies. Some experience with formulating focused research questions and strong working hypotheses of original research studies is definitely helpful for advancing critical appraisal skills. However, aspiring authors of scientific hypotheses may need something different, which is more related to discerning scientific facts, pooling homogenous data from primary research works, and synthesizing new information in a systematic way by analyzing similar sets of articles. To some extent, this activity is reminiscent of writing narrative and systematic reviews. As in the case of reviews, scientific hypotheses need to be formulated on the basis of comprehensive search strategies to retrieve all available studies on the topics of interest and then synthesize new information selectively referring to the most relevant items. One of the main differences between scientific hypothesis and review articles relates to the volume of supportive literature sources ( Table 1 ). In fact, hypothesis is usually formulated by referring to a few scientific facts or compelling evidence derived from a handful of literature sources. 19 By contrast, reviews require analyses of a large number of published documents retrieved from several well-organized and evidence-based databases in accordance with predefined search strategies. 20 , 21 , 22

Table 1. Characteristics of scientific hypotheses and narrative and systematic reviews.

The format of hypotheses, especially the implications part, may vary widely across disciplines. Clinicians may limit their suggestions to the clinical manifestations of diseases, outcomes, and management strategies. Basic and laboratory scientists analysing genetic, molecular, and biochemical mechanisms may need to view beyond the frames of their narrow fields and predict social and population-based implications of the proposed ideas. 23

Advanced writing skills are essential for presenting an interesting theoretical article which appeals to the global readership. Merely listing opposing facts and ideas, without proper interpretation and analysis, may distract the experienced readers. The essence of a great hypothesis is a story behind the scientific facts and evidence-based data.

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS

The authors of hypotheses substantiate their arguments by referring to and discerning rational points from published articles that might be overlooked by others. Their arguments may contradict the established theories and practices, and pose global ethical issues, particularly when more or less efficient medical technologies and public health interventions are devalued. The ethical issues may arise primarily because of the careless references to articles with low priorities, inadequate and apparently unethical methodologies, and concealed reporting of negative results. 24 , 25

Misinterpretation and misunderstanding of the published ideas and scientific hypotheses may complicate the issue further. For example, Alexander Fleming, whose innovative ideas of penicillin use to kill susceptible bacteria saved millions of lives, warned of the consequences of uncontrolled prescription of the drug. The issue of antibiotic resistance had emerged within the first ten years of penicillin use on a global scale due to the overprescription that affected the efficacy of antibiotic therapies, with undesirable consequences for millions. 26

The misunderstanding of the hygiene hypothesis that primarily aimed to shed light on the role of the microbiome in allergic and autoimmune diseases resulted in decline of public confidence in hygiene with dire societal implications, forcing some experts to abandon the original idea. 27 , 28 Although that hypothesis is unrelated to the issue of vaccinations, the public misunderstanding has resulted in decline of vaccinations at a time of upsurge of old and new infections.

A number of ethical issues are posed by the denial of the viral (human immunodeficiency viruses; HIV) hypothesis of acquired Immune deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) by Peter Duesberg, who overviewed the links between illicit recreational drugs and antiretroviral therapies with AIDS and refuted the etiological role of HIV. 29 That controversial hypothesis was rejected by several journals, but was eventually published without external peer review at Med Hypotheses in 2010. The publication itself raised concerns of the unconventional editorial policy of the journal, causing major perturbations and more scrutinized publishing policies by journals processing hypotheses.

WHERE TO PUBLISH HYPOTHESES

Although scientific authors are currently well informed and equipped with search tools to draft evidence-based hypotheses, there are still limited quality publication outlets calling for related articles. The journal editors may be hesitant to publish articles that do not adhere to any research reporting guidelines and open gates for harsh criticism of unconventional and untested ideas. Occasionally, the editors opting for open-access publishing and upgrading their ethics regulations launch a section to selectively publish scientific hypotheses attractive to the experienced readers. 30 However, the absence of approved standards for this article type, particularly no mandate for outlining potential ethical implications, may lead to publication of potentially harmful ideas in an attractive format.

A suggestion of simultaneously publishing multiple or alternative hypotheses to balance the reader views and feedback is a potential solution for the mainstream scholarly journals. 31 However, that option alone is hardly applicable to emerging journals with unconventional quality checks and peer review, accumulating papers with multiple rejections by established journals.

A large group of experts view hypotheses with improbable and controversial ideas publishable after formal editorial (in-house) checks to preserve the authors' genuine ideas and avoid conservative amendments imposed by external peer reviewers. 32 That approach may be acceptable for established publishers with large teams of experienced editors. However, the same approach can lead to dire consequences if employed by nonselective start-up, open-access journals processing all types of articles and primarily accepting those with charged publication fees. 33 In fact, pseudoscientific ideas arguing Newton's and Einstein's seminal works or those denying climate change that are hardly testable have already found their niche in substandard electronic journals with soft or nonexistent peer review. 34

CITATIONS AND SOCIAL MEDIA ATTENTION

The available preliminary evidence points to the attractiveness of hypothesis articles for readers, particularly those from research-intensive countries who actively download related documents. 35 However, citations of such articles are disproportionately low. Only a small proportion of top-downloaded hypotheses (13%) in the highly prestigious Med Hypotheses receive on average 5 citations per article within a two-year window. 36

With the exception of a few historic papers, the vast majority of hypotheses attract relatively small number of citations in a long term. 36 Plausible explanations are that these articles often contain a single or only a few citable points and that suggested research studies to test hypotheses are rarely conducted and reported, limiting chances of citing and crediting authors of genuine research ideas.

A snapshot analysis of citation activity of hypothesis articles may reveal interest of the global scientific community towards their implications across various disciplines and countries. As a prime example, Strachan's hygiene hypothesis, published in 1989, 10 is still attracting numerous citations on Scopus, the largest bibliographic database. As of August 28, 2019, the number of the linked citations in the database is 3,201. Of the citing articles, 160 are cited at least 160 times ( h -index of this research topic = 160). The first three citations are recorded in 1992 and followed by a rapid annual increase in citation activity and a peak of 212 in 2015 ( Fig. 1 ). The top 5 sources of the citations are Clin Exp Allergy (n = 136), J Allergy Clin Immunol (n = 119), Allergy (n = 81), Pediatr Allergy Immunol (n = 69), and PLOS One (n = 44). The top 5 citing authors are leading experts in pediatrics and allergology Erika von Mutius (Munich, Germany, number of publications with the index citation = 30), Erika Isolauri (Turku, Finland, n = 27), Patrick G Holt (Subiaco, Australia, n = 25), David P. Strachan (London, UK, n = 23), and Bengt Björksten (Stockholm, Sweden, n = 22). The U.S. is the leading country in terms of citation activity with 809 related documents, followed by the UK (n = 494), Germany (n = 314), Australia (n = 211), and the Netherlands (n = 177). The largest proportion of citing documents are articles (n = 1,726, 54%), followed by reviews (n = 950, 29.7%), and book chapters (n = 213, 6.7%). The main subject areas of the citing items are medicine (n = 2,581, 51.7%), immunology and microbiology (n = 1,179, 23.6%), and biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology (n = 415, 8.3%).

Fig. 1. Number of Scopus-indexed items citing Strachan's hygiene hypothesis in 1992–2019 (as of August 28, 2019).

Interestingly, a recent analysis of 111 publications related to Strachan's hygiene hypothesis, stating that the lack of exposure to infections in early life increases the risk of rhinitis, revealed a selection bias of 5,551 citations on Web of Science. 37 The articles supportive of the hypothesis were cited more than nonsupportive ones (odds ratio adjusted for study design, 2.2; 95% confidence interval, 1.6–3.1). A similar conclusion pointing to a citation bias distorting bibliometrics of hypotheses was reached by an earlier analysis of a citation network linked to the idea that β-amyloid, which is involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease, is produced by skeletal muscle of patients with inclusion body myositis. 38 The results of both studies are in line with the notion that ‘positive’ citations are more frequent in the field of biomedicine than ‘negative’ ones, and that citations to articles with proven hypotheses are too common. 39

Social media channels are playing an increasingly active role in the generation and evaluation of scientific hypotheses. In fact, publicly discussing research questions on platforms of news outlets, such as Reddit, may shape hypotheses on health-related issues of global importance, such as obesity. 40 Analyzing Twitter comments, researchers may reveal both potentially valuable ideas and unfounded claims that surround groundbreaking research ideas. 41 Social media activities, however, are unevenly distributed across different research topics, journals and countries, and these are not always objective professional reflections of the breakthroughs in science. 2 , 42

Scientific hypotheses are essential for progress in science and advances in healthcare. Innovative ideas should be based on a critical overview of related scientific facts and evidence-based data, often overlooked by others. To generate realistic hypothetical theories, the authors should comprehensively analyze the literature and suggest relevant and ethically sound design for future studies. They should also consider their hypotheses in the context of research and publication ethics norms acceptable for their target journals. The journal editors aiming to diversify their portfolio by maintaining and introducing hypotheses section are in a position to upgrade guidelines for related articles by pointing to general and specific analyses of the subject, preferred study designs to test hypotheses, and ethical implications. The latter is closely related to specifics of hypotheses. For example, editorial recommendations to outline benefits and risks of a new laboratory test or therapy may result in a more balanced article and minimize associated risks afterwards.

Not all scientific hypotheses have immediate positive effects. Some, if not most, are never tested in properly designed research studies and never cited in credible and indexed publication outlets. Hypotheses in specialized scientific fields, particularly those hardly understandable for nonexperts, lose their attractiveness for increasingly interdisciplinary audience. The authors' honest analysis of the benefits and limitations of their hypotheses and concerted efforts of all stakeholders in science communication to initiate public discussion on widely visible platforms and social media may reveal rational points and caveats of the new ideas.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

• Conceptualization: Gasparyan AY, Yessirkepov M, Kitas GD.
• Methodology: Gasparyan AY, Mukanova U, Ayvazyan L.
• Writing - original draft: Gasparyan AY, Ayvazyan L, Yessirkepov M.
• Writing - review & editing: Gasparyan AY, Yessirkepov M, Mukanova U, Kitas GD.
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How to Write a Hypothesis? Types and Examples 

All research studies involve the use of the scientific method, which is a mathematical and experimental technique used to conduct experiments by developing and testing a hypothesis or a prediction about an outcome. Simply put, a hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem. It includes elements that are expressed in terms of relationships with each other to explain a condition or an assumption that hasn’t been verified using facts. 1 The typical steps in a scientific method include developing such a hypothesis, testing it through various methods, and then modifying it based on the outcomes of the experiments.  

A research hypothesis can be defined as a specific, testable prediction about the anticipated results of a study. 2 Hypotheses help guide the research process and supplement the aim of the study. After several rounds of testing, hypotheses can help develop scientific theories. 3 Hypotheses are often written as if-then statements. 

Here are two hypothesis examples: 

Dandelions growing in nitrogen-rich soils for two weeks develop larger leaves than those in nitrogen-poor soils because nitrogen stimulates vegetative growth. 4  

If a company offers flexible work hours, then their employees will be happier at work. 5  

Table of Contents

• What is a hypothesis? 
• Types of hypotheses 
• Characteristics of a hypothesis 
• Functions of a hypothesis 
• How to write a hypothesis 
• Hypothesis examples 
• Frequently asked questions 

What is a hypothesis?

A hypothesis expresses an expected relationship between variables in a study and is developed before conducting any research. Hypotheses are not opinions but rather are expected relationships based on facts and observations. They help support scientific research and expand existing knowledge. An incorrectly formulated hypothesis can affect the entire experiment leading to errors in the results so it’s important to know how to formulate a hypothesis and develop it carefully.

A few sources of a hypothesis include observations from prior studies, current research and experiences, competitors, scientific theories, and general conditions that can influence people. Figure 1 depicts the different steps in a research design and shows where exactly in the process a hypothesis is developed. 4  

There are seven different types of hypotheses—simple, complex, directional, nondirectional, associative and causal, null, and alternative. 

Types of hypotheses

The seven types of hypotheses are listed below: 5 , 6,7  

• Simple : Predicts the relationship between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable. 

Example: Exercising in the morning every day will increase your productivity.  

• Complex : Predicts the relationship between two or more variables. 

Example: Spending three hours or more on social media daily will negatively affect children’s mental health and productivity, more than that of adults.  

• Directional : Specifies the expected direction to be followed and uses terms like increase, decrease, positive, negative, more, or less. 

Example: The inclusion of intervention X decreases infant mortality compared to the original treatment.  

• Non-directional : Does not predict the exact direction, nature, or magnitude of the relationship between two variables but rather states the existence of a relationship. This hypothesis may be used when there is no underlying theory or if findings contradict prior research. 

Example: Cats and dogs differ in the amount of affection they express.  

• Associative and causal : An associative hypothesis suggests an interdependency between variables, that is, how a change in one variable changes the other.  

Example: There is a positive association between physical activity levels and overall health.  

A causal hypothesis, on the other hand, expresses a cause-and-effect association between variables. 

Example: Long-term alcohol use causes liver damage.  

• Null : Claims that the original hypothesis is false by showing that there is no relationship between the variables. 

Example: Sleep duration does not have any effect on productivity.  

• Alternative : States the opposite of the null hypothesis, that is, a relationship exists between two variables. 

Example: Sleep duration affects productivity.  

Characteristics of a hypothesis

So, what makes a good hypothesis? Here are some important characteristics of a hypothesis. 8,9  

• Testable : You must be able to test the hypothesis using scientific methods to either accept or reject the prediction. 
• Falsifiable : It should be possible to collect data that reject rather than support the hypothesis. 
• Logical : Hypotheses shouldn’t be a random guess but rather should be based on previous theories, observations, prior research, and logical reasoning. 
• Positive : The hypothesis statement about the existence of an association should be positive, that is, it should not suggest that an association does not exist. Therefore, the language used and knowing how to phrase a hypothesis is very important. 
• Clear and accurate : The language used should be easily comprehensible and use correct terminology. 
• Relevant : The hypothesis should be relevant and specific to the research question. 
• Structure : Should include all the elements that make a good hypothesis: variables, relationship, and outcome. 

Functions of a hypothesis

The following list mentions some important functions of a hypothesis: 1  

• Maintains the direction and progress of the research. 
• Expresses the important assumptions underlying the proposition in a single statement. 
• Establishes a suitable context for researchers to begin their investigation and for readers who are referring to the final report. 
• Provides an explanation for the occurrence of a specific phenomenon. 
• Ensures selection of appropriate and accurate facts necessary and relevant to the research subject. 

To summarize, a hypothesis provides the conceptual elements that complete the known data, conceptual relationships that systematize unordered elements, and conceptual meanings and interpretations that explain the unknown phenomena. 1  

How to write a hypothesis

Listed below are the main steps explaining how to write a hypothesis. 2,4,5  

• Make an observation and identify variables : Observe the subject in question and try to recognize a pattern or a relationship between the variables involved. This step provides essential background information to begin your research.  

For example, if you notice that an office’s vending machine frequently runs out of a specific snack, you may predict that more people in the office choose that snack over another. 

• Identify the main research question : After identifying a subject and recognizing a pattern, the next step is to ask a question that your hypothesis will answer.  

For example, after observing employees’ break times at work, you could ask “why do more employees take breaks in the morning rather than in the afternoon?” 

• Conduct some preliminary research to ensure originality and novelty : Your initial answer, which is your hypothesis, to the question is based on some pre-existing information about the subject. However, to ensure that your hypothesis has not been asked before or that it has been asked but rejected by other researchers you would need to gather additional information.  

For example, based on your observations you might state a hypothesis that employees work more efficiently when the air conditioning in the office is set at a lower temperature. However, during your preliminary research you find that this hypothesis was proven incorrect by a prior study. 

• Develop a general statement : After your preliminary research has confirmed the originality of your proposed answer, draft a general statement that includes all variables, subjects, and predicted outcome. The statement could be if/then or declarative.  
• Finalize the hypothesis statement : Use the PICOT model, which clarifies how to word a hypothesis effectively, when finalizing the statement. This model lists the important components required to write a hypothesis. 

P opulation: The specific group or individual who is the main subject of the research 

I nterest: The main concern of the study/research question 

C omparison: The main alternative group 

O utcome: The expected results  

T ime: Duration of the experiment 

Once you’ve finalized your hypothesis statement you would need to conduct experiments to test whether the hypothesis is true or false. 

Hypothesis examples

The following table provides examples of different types of hypotheses. 10 ,11  

Key takeaways  

Here’s a summary of all the key points discussed in this article about how to write a hypothesis. 

• A hypothesis is an assumption about an association between variables made based on limited evidence, which should be tested. 
• A hypothesis has four parts—the research question, independent variable, dependent variable, and the proposed relationship between the variables.   
• The statement should be clear, concise, testable, logical, and falsifiable. 
• There are seven types of hypotheses—simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative and causal, null, and alternative. 
• A hypothesis provides a focus and direction for the research to progress. 
• A hypothesis plays an important role in the scientific method by helping to create an appropriate experimental design. 

Frequently asked questions

Hypotheses and research questions have different objectives and structure. The following table lists some major differences between the two. 9  

Here are a few examples to differentiate between a research question and hypothesis. 

Yes, here’s a simple checklist to help you gauge the effectiveness of your hypothesis. 9   1. When writing a hypothesis statement, check if it:  2. Predicts the relationship between the stated variables and the expected outcome.  3. Uses simple and concise language and is not wordy.  4. Does not assume readers’ knowledge about the subject.  5. Has observable, falsifiable, and testable results. 

As mentioned earlier in this article, a hypothesis is an assumption or prediction about an association between variables based on observations and simple evidence. These statements are usually generic. Research objectives, on the other hand, are more specific and dictated by hypotheses. The same hypothesis can be tested using different methods and the research objectives could be different in each case.     For example, Louis Pasteur observed that food lasts longer at higher altitudes, reasoned that it could be because the air at higher altitudes is cleaner (with fewer or no germs), and tested the hypothesis by exposing food to air cleaned in the laboratory. 12 Thus, a hypothesis is predictive—if the reasoning is correct, X will lead to Y—and research objectives are developed to test these predictions. 

Null hypothesis testing is a method to decide between two assumptions or predictions between variables (null and alternative hypotheses) in a statistical relationship in a sample. The null hypothesis, denoted as H 0 , claims that no relationship exists between variables in a population and any relationship in the sample reflects a sampling error or occurrence by chance. The alternative hypothesis, denoted as H 1 , claims that there is a relationship in the population. In every study, researchers need to decide whether the relationship in a sample occurred by chance or reflects a relationship in the population. This is done by hypothesis testing using the following steps: 13   1. Assume that the null hypothesis is true.  2. Determine how likely the sample relationship would be if the null hypothesis were true. This probability is called the p value.  3. If the sample relationship would be extremely unlikely, reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis. If the relationship would not be unlikely, accept the null hypothesis. 

To summarize, researchers should know how to write a good hypothesis to ensure that their research progresses in the required direction. A hypothesis is a testable prediction about any behavior or relationship between variables, usually based on facts and observation, and states an expected outcome.  

We hope this article has provided you with essential insight into the different types of hypotheses and their functions so that you can use them appropriately in your next research project. 

References  

• Dalen, DVV. The function of hypotheses in research. Proquest website. Accessed April 8, 2024. https://www.proquest.com/docview/1437933010?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals&imgSeq=1  
• McLeod S. Research hypothesis in psychology: Types & examples. SimplyPsychology website. Updated December 13, 2023. Accessed April 9, 2024. https://www.simplypsychology.org/what-is-a-hypotheses.html  
• Scientific method. Britannica website. Updated March 14, 2024. Accessed April 9, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/science/scientific-method  
• The hypothesis in science writing. Accessed April 10, 2024. https://berks.psu.edu/sites/berks/files/campus/HypothesisHandout_Final.pdf  
• How to develop a hypothesis (with elements, types, and examples). Indeed.com website. Updated February 3, 2023. Accessed April 10, 2024. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/how-to-write-a-hypothesis  
• Types of research hypotheses. Excelsior online writing lab. Accessed April 11, 2024. https://owl.excelsior.edu/research/research-hypotheses/types-of-research-hypotheses/  
• What is a research hypothesis: how to write it, types, and examples. Researcher.life website. Published February 8, 2023. Accessed April 11, 2024. https://researcher.life/blog/article/how-to-write-a-research-hypothesis-definition-types-examples/  
• Developing a hypothesis. Pressbooks website. Accessed April 12, 2024. https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/developing-a-hypothesis/  
• What is and how to write a good hypothesis in research. Elsevier author services website. Accessed April 12, 2024. https://scientific-publishing.webshop.elsevier.com/manuscript-preparation/what-how-write-good-hypothesis-research/  
• How to write a great hypothesis. Verywellmind website. Updated March 12, 2023. Accessed April 13, 2024. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-hypothesis-2795239  
• 15 Hypothesis examples. Helpfulprofessor.com Published September 8, 2023. Accessed March 14, 2024. https://helpfulprofessor.com/hypothesis-examples/ 
• Editage insights. What is the interconnectivity between research objectives and hypothesis? Published February 24, 2021. Accessed April 13, 2024. https://www.editage.com/insights/what-is-the-interconnectivity-between-research-objectives-and-hypothesis  
• Understanding null hypothesis testing. BCCampus open publishing. Accessed April 16, 2024. https://opentextbc.ca/researchmethods/chapter/understanding-null-hypothesis-testing/#:~:text=In%20null%20hypothesis%20testing%2C%20this,said%20to%20be%20statistically%20significant  

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Research Paper Writing Guides

Research Paper Hypothesis

Last updated on: Dec 14, 2024

How To Write A Hypothesis In A Research Paper - A Guide with Examples

By: Barbara P.

12 min read

Reviewed By:

Published on: Mar 6, 2024

Writing a good hypothesis can be challenging, especially for new researchers. If your hypothesis isn’t clear, it can confuse readers about what you're studying and what you expect to find.

This confusion can make your research less reliable and harder for others to build upon.

In this blog post, we’ll guide you through how to state a hypothesis in a research paper, step by step. We’ll show you how to write a clear, testable hypothesis with examples.

By the end, you’ll have all it takes to craft a strong hypothesis for your research!

On this Page

What is a Hypothesis in Research?

A hypothesis in a research paper is a tentative statement or prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. It provides a basis for further investigation and is typically tested through experiments or data analysis to confirm or reject the proposed idea. 

A hypothesis is not a definitive conclusion but rather a statement that guides the research process.

Components of a Hypothesis

If you are wondering what to write in a research hypothesis, here is the breakdown:

5 Steps for Writing a Strong Hypothesis

A strong hypothesis gives readers a clear understanding of your research. In this section, we’ll go over the steps to write a strong hypothesis in detail: 

Step 1: Understand the Research Question

Before jumping into hypothesis-making, take time to understand your research problem . Break it down into its core components. 

For instance, if your research question is,

"How does caffeine consumption affect students' test performance?"

• Identify the Main Focus: Clearly pinpoint the main aspect of the research question. In this case, it's the impact of caffeine consumption.
• Define Variables: Recognize the key variables involved. In our example, the independent variable is "caffeine consumption," and the dependent variable is "students' test performance."
• Refine the Question: Ask yourself what specific information you want to uncover. Is it the overall effect, a comparison between different levels of caffeine intake, or perhaps the timing of consumption? This refinement sets the stage for a more focused hypothesis.

Step 2: Identify the Variables

Understanding the variables of your research is important for defining the key roles and what changes you're anticipating.

They are the backbone of your hypothesis and create a focused and meaningful research approach.

• Independent Variable (The What You Tweak): Pinpoint the factor you're going to manipulate.

For instance, if you're exploring the impact of fertilizer on plant growth, fertilizer becomes your independent variable.

• Dependent Variable (The What You Measure): Identify the factor you're measuring, the one expected to change due to the manipulation.

In the plant growth example, it could be the height of the plants after a specific period—this is your dependent variable.

Step 3: Formulate a Clear Statement

Precision is the key to shaping a concise and strong hypothesis. To create a well-structured hypothesis, condense your thoughts into a single, easy-to-follow sentence.

Also, do not forget to clearly express the expected connection between your independent and dependent variables.

Step 4: Consider the Type of Hypothesis

In this step, you decide on the type of your hypothesis—whether it's giving a specific prediction or leaving room for surprises.

• Example of Directional Hypothesis: "Increasing product advertising will result in higher sales."
• Example of Non-Directional Hypothesis: "There is a significant correlation between stress levels and job performance."

Step 5: Predict the Outcome

Predicting the outcome is like offering a sneak peek into the conclusion of your research narrative.

By following these five steps, you'll be well on your way to creating a strong and effective hypothesis, providing a solid foundation for your research.

Different Types of Hypothesis

Hypotheses come in different types, each designed to focus on different aspects of research.

Here are 2 main types of hypotheses:

1. Null Hypothesis (H?)

The null hypothesis states there is no effect, relationship, or difference between variables. It serves as the baseline or assumption that the researcher aims to disprove.

Example : There is no significant relationship between exercise and weight loss.

How to Write a Null Hypothesis In A Research Paper?

Writing a null hypothesis in a research paper involves stating a proposition that there is no significant difference or effect. 

Here are some tips for writing a null hypothesis:

• Reverse the Statement: Formulate the null hypothesis by reversing the statement of the research hypothesis to suggest no significant difference or effect.
• Use Equality Sign: Express the null hypothesis using an equality sign, such as "equals" or "is not significantly different from."
• Be Specific and Testable: Make the null hypothesis specific and testable, ensuring it can be evaluated through data analysis.
• Consider the Context: Ensure that the null hypothesis is appropriate for the context of your research.

Here is an example of a null hypothesis:

How to Write a Null Hypothesis In A Research Paper

2. Alternative Hypothesis (H? or Ha)

The alternative hypothesis suggests there is an effect, relationship, or difference. It represents the outcome the researcher expects to find.

Example : Regular exercise leads to significant weight loss.

How to Write an Alternative Hypothesis?

Writing an alternative hypothesis, also known as the research hypothesis, involves stating a proposition that suggests a significant difference or effect between variables. 

Here are some tips for writing an alternative hypothesis:

• Formulate a Prediction: Formulate a clear prediction or expectation regarding the relationship or effect between the variables.
• Express the Relationship: Clearly express the anticipated relationship or effect using specific terms, such as "greater than," "less than," or "different from."
• Use Inequality Sign: Utilize an inequality sign (>, <, ?) to represent the direction of the expected difference or effect.

Here's a PDF example for an alternative hypothesis:

How to Write an Alternative Hypothesis

Other Common Types of Hypotheses

The following table categorizes the other 9 types of hypotheses with examples based on their nature and application:

Hypothesis Examples H2 

Now that we know the types of hypotheses, let’s look at the examples of hypotheses across various contexts below to see how they work in action.

• Research Hypothesis Example in Thesis

In a thesis, a research hypothesis provides a clear, testable prediction that guides the study.

• Example : Students who receive interactive online instruction will have higher test scores than those who receive traditional classroom instruction.
• Hypothesis for Qualitative Research Example

A hypothesis for qualitative research is often exploratory and seeks to understand patterns, themes, or behaviors.

• Example : Teachers' perceptions of technology use in classrooms vary depending on their years of teaching experience.
• Hypothesis for Quantitative Research Example

Quantitative research hypotheses focus on measurable outcomes and statistical analysis. Let’s take a look at the below given example of hypothesis in quantitative research:

• Example : Increasing the frequency of employee training sessions leads to a 20% increase in productivity.

Check out this research hypothesis pdf for a better understanding:

Example Of Hypothesis In Research Proposal PDF

Research Question vs. Hypothesis vs. Thesis Statement

Research Question, Hypothesis, and Thesis Statement are three distinct elements in the research process, each serving a specific purpose.

Here's a breakdown of their differences:

In a nutshell ,  hypotheses are more than just statements; they help guide our discoveries. As you work on your research, use clear hypotheses to define your research question.

If you struggle with creating a meaningful hypothesis or any part of your research paper, consider getting help from SharkPapers.com, the top paper writing service for college .

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Frequently Asked Questions

How to format hypothesis in research paper.

To format a hypothesis in a research paper:

• State it clearly and concisely.
• Position it early, usually in the introduction or after the literature review.
• Use precise language to define variables and relationships.
• Present it as a declarative statement (e.g., "X affects Y" ).
• If needed, include both null and alternative hypotheses.

How To State Hypothesis In Research Paper APA?

To state a hypothesis in an APA-style research paper:

• Placement: Include it in the introduction, often at the end of the literature review or the introduction section.
• Formatting: Write in a clear, concise, and declarative form, using past or present tense.
• Structure: Use one or two sentences to describe the predicted relationship between variables.

Barbara has a Ph.D. in public health from an Ivy League university and extensive experience working in the medical field. With her practical experience conducting research on various health issues, she is skilled in writing innovative papers on healthcare. Her many works have been published in multiple publications.

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How to Write a Research Hypothesis: Good & Bad Examples

What is a research hypothesis?

A research hypothesis is an attempt at explaining a phenomenon or the relationships between phenomena/variables in the real world. Hypotheses are sometimes called “educated guesses”, but they are in fact (or let’s say they should be) based on previous observations, existing theories, scientific evidence, and logic. A research hypothesis is also not a prediction—rather, predictions are ( should be) based on clearly formulated hypotheses. For example, “We tested the hypothesis that KLF2 knockout mice would show deficiencies in heart development” is an assumption or prediction, not a hypothesis. 

The research hypothesis at the basis of this prediction is “the product of the KLF2 gene is involved in the development of the cardiovascular system in mice”—and this hypothesis is probably (hopefully) based on a clear observation, such as that mice with low levels of Kruppel-like factor 2 (which KLF2 codes for) seem to have heart problems. From this hypothesis, you can derive the idea that a mouse in which this particular gene does not function cannot develop a normal cardiovascular system, and then make the prediction that we started with. 

What is the difference between a hypothesis and a prediction?

You might think that these are very subtle differences, and you will certainly come across many publications that do not contain an actual hypothesis or do not make these distinctions correctly. But considering that the formulation and testing of hypotheses is an integral part of the scientific method, it is good to be aware of the concepts underlying this approach. The two hallmarks of a scientific hypothesis are falsifiability (an evaluation standard that was introduced by the philosopher of science Karl Popper in 1934) and testability —if you cannot use experiments or data to decide whether an idea is true or false, then it is not a hypothesis (or at least a very bad one).

So, in a nutshell, you (1) look at existing evidence/theories, (2) come up with a hypothesis, (3) make a prediction that allows you to (4) design an experiment or data analysis to test it, and (5) come to a conclusion. Of course, not all studies have hypotheses (there is also exploratory or hypothesis-generating research), and you do not necessarily have to state your hypothesis as such in your paper. 

But for the sake of understanding the principles of the scientific method, let’s first take a closer look at the different types of hypotheses that research articles refer to and then give you a step-by-step guide for how to formulate a strong hypothesis for your own paper.

Types of Research Hypotheses

Hypotheses can be simple , which means they describe the relationship between one single independent variable (the one you observe variations in or plan to manipulate) and one single dependent variable (the one you expect to be affected by the variations/manipulation). If there are more variables on either side, you are dealing with a complex hypothesis. You can also distinguish hypotheses according to the kind of relationship between the variables you are interested in (e.g., causal or associative ). But apart from these variations, we are usually interested in what is called the “alternative hypothesis” and, in contrast to that, the “null hypothesis”. If you think these two should be listed the other way round, then you are right, logically speaking—the alternative should surely come second. However, since this is the hypothesis we (as researchers) are usually interested in, let’s start from there.

Alternative Hypothesis

If you predict a relationship between two variables in your study, then the research hypothesis that you formulate to describe that relationship is your alternative hypothesis (usually H1 in statistical terms). The goal of your hypothesis testing is thus to demonstrate that there is sufficient evidence that supports the alternative hypothesis, rather than evidence for the possibility that there is no such relationship. The alternative hypothesis is usually the research hypothesis of a study and is based on the literature, previous observations, and widely known theories. 

Null Hypothesis

The hypothesis that describes the other possible outcome, that is, that your variables are not related, is the null hypothesis ( H0 ). Based on your findings, you choose between the two hypotheses—usually that means that if your prediction was correct, you reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative. Make sure, however, that you are not getting lost at this step of the thinking process: If your prediction is that there will be no difference or change, then you are trying to find support for the null hypothesis and reject H1. 

Directional Hypothesis

While the null hypothesis is obviously “static”, the alternative hypothesis can specify a direction for the observed relationship between variables—for example, that mice with higher expression levels of a certain protein are more active than those with lower levels. This is then called a one-tailed hypothesis. 

Another example for a directional one-tailed alternative hypothesis would be that 

H1: Attending private classes before important exams has a positive effect on performance. 

Your null hypothesis would then be that

H0: Attending private classes before important exams has no/a negative effect on performance.

Nondirectional Hypothesis

A nondirectional hypothesis does not specify the direction of the potentially observed effect, only that there is a relationship between the studied variables—this is called a two-tailed hypothesis. For instance, if you are studying a new drug that has shown some effects on pathways involved in a certain condition (e.g., anxiety) in vitro in the lab, but you can’t say for sure whether it will have the same effects in an animal model or maybe induce other/side effects that you can’t predict and potentially increase anxiety levels instead, you could state the two hypotheses like this:

H1: The only lab-tested drug (somehow) affects anxiety levels in an anxiety mouse model.

You then test this nondirectional alternative hypothesis against the null hypothesis:

H0: The only lab-tested drug has no effect on anxiety levels in an anxiety mouse model.

How to Write a Hypothesis for a Research Paper

Now that we understand the important distinctions between different kinds of research hypotheses, let’s look at a simple process of how to write a hypothesis.

Writing a Hypothesis Step:1

Ask a question, based on earlier research. Research always starts with a question, but one that takes into account what is already known about a topic or phenomenon. For example, if you are interested in whether people who have pets are happier than those who don’t, do a literature search and find out what has already been demonstrated. You will probably realize that yes, there is quite a bit of research that shows a relationship between happiness and owning a pet—and even studies that show that owning a dog is more beneficial than owning a cat ! Let’s say you are so intrigued by this finding that you wonder: 

What is it that makes dog owners even happier than cat owners? 

Let’s move on to Step 2 and find an answer to that question.

Writing a Hypothesis Step 2:

Formulate a strong hypothesis by answering your own question. Again, you don’t want to make things up, take unicorns into account, or repeat/ignore what has already been done. Looking at the dog-vs-cat papers your literature search returned, you see that most studies are based on self-report questionnaires on personality traits, mental health, and life satisfaction. What you don’t find is any data on actual (mental or physical) health measures, and no experiments. You therefore decide to make a bold claim come up with the carefully thought-through hypothesis that it’s maybe the lifestyle of the dog owners, which includes walking their dog several times per day, engaging in fun and healthy activities such as agility competitions, and taking them on trips, that gives them that extra boost in happiness. You could therefore answer your question in the following way:

Dog owners are happier than cat owners because of the dog-related activities they engage in.

Now you have to verify that your hypothesis fulfills the two requirements we introduced at the beginning of this resource article: falsifiability and testability . If it can’t be wrong and can’t be tested, it’s not a hypothesis. We are lucky, however, because yes, we can test whether owning a dog but not engaging in any of those activities leads to lower levels of happiness or well-being than owning a dog and playing and running around with them or taking them on trips.  

Writing a Hypothesis Step 3:

Make your predictions and define your variables. We have verified that we can test our hypothesis, but now we have to define all the relevant variables, design our experiment or data analysis, and make precise predictions. You could, for example, decide to study dog owners (not surprising at this point), let them fill in questionnaires about their lifestyle as well as their life satisfaction (as other studies did), and then compare two groups of active and inactive dog owners. Alternatively, if you want to go beyond the data that earlier studies produced and analyzed and directly manipulate the activity level of your dog owners to study the effect of that manipulation, you could invite them to your lab, select groups of participants with similar lifestyles, make them change their lifestyle (e.g., couch potato dog owners start agility classes, very active ones have to refrain from any fun activities for a certain period of time) and assess their happiness levels before and after the intervention. In both cases, your independent variable would be “ level of engagement in fun activities with dog” and your dependent variable would be happiness or well-being . 

Examples of a Good and Bad Hypothesis

Let’s look at a few examples of good and bad hypotheses to get you started.

Good Hypothesis Examples

Bad hypothesis examples, tips for writing a research hypothesis.

If you understood the distinction between a hypothesis and a prediction we made at the beginning of this article, then you will have no problem formulating your hypotheses and predictions correctly. To refresh your memory: We have to (1) look at existing evidence, (2) come up with a hypothesis, (3) make a prediction, and (4) design an experiment. For example, you could summarize your dog/happiness study like this:

(1) While research suggests that dog owners are happier than cat owners, there are no reports on what factors drive this difference. (2) We hypothesized that it is the fun activities that many dog owners (but very few cat owners) engage in with their pets that increases their happiness levels. (3) We thus predicted that preventing very active dog owners from engaging in such activities for some time and making very inactive dog owners take up such activities would lead to an increase and decrease in their overall self-ratings of happiness, respectively. (4) To test this, we invited dog owners into our lab, assessed their mental and emotional well-being through questionnaires, and then assigned them to an “active” and an “inactive” group, depending on… 

Note that you use “we hypothesize” only for your hypothesis, not for your experimental prediction, and “would” or “if – then” only for your prediction, not your hypothesis. A hypothesis that states that something “would” affect something else sounds as if you don’t have enough confidence to make a clear statement—in which case you can’t expect your readers to believe in your research either. Write in the present tense, don’t use modal verbs that express varying degrees of certainty (such as may, might, or could ), and remember that you are not drawing a conclusion while trying not to exaggerate but making a clear statement that you then, in a way, try to disprove . And if that happens, that is not something to fear but an important part of the scientific process.

Similarly, don’t use “we hypothesize” when you explain the implications of your research or make predictions in the conclusion section of your manuscript, since these are clearly not hypotheses in the true sense of the word. As we said earlier, you will find that many authors of academic articles do not seem to care too much about these rather subtle distinctions, but thinking very clearly about your own research will not only help you write better but also ensure that even that infamous Reviewer 2 will find fewer reasons to nitpick about your manuscript. 

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On the Wordvice academic resources website , you can also find many more articles and other resources that can help you with writing the other parts of your research paper , with making a research paper outline before you put everything together, or with writing an effective cover letter once you are ready to submit.

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Step-by-Step Guide: How to Craft a Strong Research Hypothesis

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Table of Contents

A research hypothesis is a concise statement about the expected result of an experiment or project. In many ways, a research hypothesis represents the starting point for a scientific endeavor, as it establishes a tentative assumption that is eventually substantiated or falsified, ultimately improving our certainty about the subject investigated.   

To help you with this and ease the process, in this article, we discuss the purpose of research hypotheses and list the most essential qualities of a compelling hypothesis. Let’s find out!  

How to Craft a Research Hypothesis  

Crafting a research hypothesis begins with a comprehensive literature review to identify a knowledge gap in your field. Once you find a question or problem, come up with a possible answer or explanation, which becomes your hypothesis. Now think about the specific methods of experimentation that can prove or disprove the hypothesis, which ultimately lead to the results of the study.   

Enlisted below are some standard formats in which you can formulate a hypothesis¹ :  

• A hypothesis can use the if/then format when it seeks to explore the correlation between two variables in a study primarily.  

Example: If administered drug X, then patients will experience reduced fatigue from cancer treatment.  

• A hypothesis can adopt when X/then Y format when it primarily aims to expose a connection between two variables  

Example: When workers spend a significant portion of their waking hours in sedentary work , then they experience a greater frequency of digestive problems.  

• A hypothesis can also take the form of a direct statement.  

Example: Drug X and drug Y reduce the risk of cognitive decline through the same chemical pathways  

What are the Features of an Effective Hypothesis?  

Hypotheses in research need to satisfy specific criteria to be considered scientifically rigorous. Here are the most notable qualities of a strong hypothesis:  

• Testability: Ensure the hypothesis allows you to work towards observable and testable results.  
• Brevity and objectivity: Present your hypothesis as a brief statement and avoid wordiness.  
• Clarity and Relevance: The hypothesis should reflect a clear idea of what we know and what we expect to find out about a phenomenon and address the significant knowledge gap relevant to a field of study.   

Understanding Null and Alternative Hypotheses in Research  

There are two types of hypotheses used commonly in research that aid statistical analyses. These are known as the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis . A null hypothesis is a statement assumed to be factual in the initial phase of the study.   

For example, if a researcher is testing the efficacy of a new drug, then the null hypothesis will posit that the drug has no benefits compared to an inactive control or placebo . Suppose the data collected through a drug trial leads a researcher to reject the null hypothesis. In that case, it is considered to substantiate the alternative hypothesis in the above example, that the new drug provides benefits compared to the placebo.  

Let’s take a closer look at the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis with two more examples:  

Null Hypothesis:  

The rate of decline in the number of species in habitat X in the last year is the same as in the last 100 years when controlled for all factors except the recent wildfires.  

In the next experiment, the researcher will experimentally reject this null hypothesis in order to confirm the following alternative hypothesis :  

The rate of decline in the number of species in habitat X in the last year is different from the rate of decline in the last 100 years when controlled for all factors other than the recent wildfires.  

In the pair of null and alternative hypotheses stated above, a statistical comparison of the rate of species decline over a century and the preceding year will help the research experimentally test the null hypothesis, helping to draw scientifically valid conclusions about two factors—wildfires and species decline.   

We also recommend that researchers pay attention to contextual echoes and connections when writing research hypotheses. Research hypotheses are often closely linked to the introduction ² , such as the context of the study, and can similarly influence the reader’s judgment of the relevance and validity of the research hypothesis.  

Seasoned experts, such as professionals at Elsevier Language Services, guide authors on how to best embed a hypothesis within an article so that it communicates relevance and credibility. Contact us if you want help in ensuring readers find your hypothesis robust and unbiased.  

References  

• Hypotheses – The University Writing Center. (n.d.). https://writingcenter.tamu.edu/writing-speaking-guides/hypotheses  
• Shaping the research question and hypothesis. (n.d.). Students. https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/graduate-research-services/writing-thesis-sections-part-2/shaping-the-research-question-and-hypothesis  

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Research Hypothesis: The Essential Requirements and Guidelines

Table of contents

• 1.1 Research Question vs Hypothesis
• 1.2 Null Hypothesis
• 1.3 Alternative Hypothesis
• 2 Hypothesis Essential Requirements
• 3 How to Formulate an Effective Research Hypothesis
• 4 Research Hypothesis Examples

Writing research requires students to have a deep knowledge not only of the subject but also of the requirements for the project. There are a lot of structural units that form an integral part of research writing.

Knowing the right methods and carrying out background research will lead you to discoveries. In this article, we will talk about such a technique as a research hypothesis. We will analyze in detail the features of using a good research hypothesis, its types, and meanings, the peculiarities of independent and dependent variables, as well as the connection with the research topic.

This article will guide you as you write your paper and give you the key techniques to follow all the requirements.

What is a Hypothesis in Research?

Let’s start by clarifying the term “ research hypothesis “. This is a kind of assumption or idea that the author of the study puts forward for further investigation. A hypothesis requires proof and is not true until confirmatory experiments have been carried out.

In the context of the research project, a hypothesis is necessary for the presentation of the expected directions and results of the work. This idea must be clearly stated to follow a logical chain and help to write your research and do further experiments. The ultimate goal of your research is to confirm or disprove the hypothesis. Not to be confused with the research question.

Let’s list the main types of hypotheses and find out the differences they may present for academic research:

• Null hypothesis
• Alternative hypothesis
• Simple hypothesis
• Complex hypothesis
• Statistical hypothesis
• Empirical hypothesis
• Causal hypothesis
• Directional hypothesis
• Associative hypothesis
• Logical hypothesis

Being aware that there are different kinds of research hypotheses will help you build your own with less effort. Many researchers adhere to the approach that there are only two varieties: Null hypothesis and Alternative hypothesis. However, we will consider what the essence of the most commonly used methods is.

The Null hypotheses is a statement with two or more variables. The Null hypothesis proposes that there is no connection between those variables. This type of inference is very often used in the course of scientific research in the fields of statistics, medicine, biology and many other sciences. The Alternative hypothesis states the opposite information to the Null Hypothesis, and aims to prove that there is a relationship between two variables.

A Simple hypothesis presents a correlation between only two variables, a single dependent variable and a single independent variable. While the Complex hypothesis states the presence of a connection between several dependent variables and independent variables.

Research Question vs Hypothesis

The differences between these two critical techniques for writing a good research paper  should be explained so that you have no doubts. A research question  is a question that is raised in the course of observations and which the researcher seeks to answer.

While a hypothesis is an assumption that must be proven or refuted in the course of the study, these two concepts are different by nature, the research question has an inquisitive function, while a research hypothesis predicts the outcome of the experiment.

Null Hypothesis

Now we will take a closer look at the most used, basic scientific method. Null hypothesis states that there is no interconnection between the two variables that are being studied. To formulate the Null Hypothesis, you need to present your testable prediction about relevant variables as a negative statement.

The original hypothesis might state that the variables do not have differences, there is no influence of factors, there is no effect, the characteristics of which are equal to zero, with no statistical significance.

The purpose of scientific experiments is to disprove the Null Hypothesis, that is, to prove the positive relationship between independent and dependent variables. For example, you are a scientist in the field of mental health, and you face the necessity of writing a psychology research paper .

Studying a popular theory and presenting a null hypothesis: When a teenager uses social media, it will not impact their self-esteem. Alfred your aim is to carry out a comprehensive, thorough investigation to prove or disprove this prediction.

Alternative Hypothesis

Let’s now talk about the opposite of the Null Hypothesis, which is the Alternative Hypothesis. This kind of inference is the opposite idea to the one supported by the Null Hypothesis. It is also sometimes called an experimental hypothesis, as it reveals the subject of future scientific research.

The essence of this hypothesis involves proposing the relationship between two variables, more precisely one variable influences the independent variable. The experimental hypothesis predicts how exactly the outcome may be affected during experimental manipulations.

At the same time the Alternative hypothesis can be divided into two groups: Directional hypothesis and Non-directional hypothesis.

Hypothesis Essential Requirements

A good research hypothesis sets the direction for your further research study. If you manage to formulate it correctly, then this will give a significant impetus to experiments.

However, if the basis of your scientific research paper is not specifically or vaguely explained, then your experiments may go into a dead corner. To avoid such problems, let’s look at what an effective research hypothesis should look like.

• Researchers must write a hypothesis based on the theme of the goals and objectives of the work. The formulation of the hypothesis should be competent, concise, and specific.
• The scientific hypothesis should be formulated in such a way that the stated problems could be studied, proved, or refuted in the course of the work.
• Your hypothesis must include at least one dependent variable and one independent variable.
• A non-testable hypothesis is a blind corner to your research study. The purpose of creating a hypothesis is to further study it, which is why only the testable hypothesis can underlie your work.
• It is crucial that the hypothesis states the object of the studies in a non-ambiguous way so as not to mislead the reader. Your testable statement should correspond with the research question.
• Prior research stands at the base of a strong research hypothesis. Researchers need to be knowledgeable in the field of studies, as there is a significant difference between just a guess and a working hypothesis.
• Your hypothesis should be the result of a study of existing theories. To do this, you need to study the variables involved and make precise predictions, having previously identified problematic issues suitable for study.

By following these guidelines, you will be able to accurately formulate a compelling hypothesis that will serve as a reliable core and help you write a research paper fundamentally. It will also be very helpful to study a few examples of good research hypotheses in order to have a better understanding of the issue.

How to Formulate an Effective Research Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an effective methodological tool that helps us structure our work. That is why it is very important to pay attention to the correct formulation and designation of a strong hypothesis.

Preliminary research is also required before formulating your assumptions. General knowledge of the field of study will help you accurately identify problems in the subject of study. Namely, this is the basis for the construction of supporting assumptions.

A hypothesis itself is a scientific method in the form of an assumption that is formed based on a theory. Therefore, the key to successful research is the choice of a reliable experimental and theoretical base. Brilliant research is based on previous and no less brilliant research. Therefore, your assumptions must come from evidence-based sources. Otherwise, they may lead to false results.

To formulate a hypothesis, you need to study the research problem. This means that preliminary research is indispensable, and it is precisely what a hypothesis begins with. If you find it challenging to manage the study on your own, you can opt for research paper help from professional writers.

It is necessary that your predictions correspond to the object of study, do not create contradictions between existing and received knowledge, and are also testable. Be careful not to use banal facts as a basis for building a hypothesis, otherwise, you will severely limit the field for experiments.

In the course of conducting previous research, you will be able to highlight certain factors in the theory that need additional observation. Perhaps these phenomena deviate from the general vector of the functioning of the theory.

Talking about variables, they should be well elaborated, to avoid any misconceptions. Find out what your independent variable would be, it is the one you are about to substitute to get new research data. Then figure out what you’d dependent variable stands for, which is what the research measures. Subsequently, you have to determine what kind of relationship exists between them.

Once you have identified the necessary factors, you are ready to begin formulating your hypothesis. Or if you still struggle to start the research, then it may be useful for you to resort to writing service professional help. This should be done in such a way that the hypothesis explains the cause of the problem. Then you have to test your assumptions by conducting an experiment or by looking for correlations between the dependent variable and independent variable.

As difficult as it may be to formulate a good hypothesis, this is a key step to successful, structured work. Any knowledge comes through a long process of learning theory and then reconciling skills in practice. That is why we are confident in your abilities, and we wish you success in creating a research hypothesis. We hope this article has become informative for you and clarified the key concepts necessary for a good scientific hypothesis.

Research Hypothesis Examples

Here are examples that illustrate how hypotheses can shape research across various disciplines.

Increased exposure to sunlight will result in higher rates of photosynthesis in spinach plants. Individuals with a higher level of emotional intelligence will have more successful personal relationships. Access to higher education will decrease income inequality within a society. An increase in temperature will result in an increase in the average kinetic energy of gas molecules. Increasing the concentration of a reactant in a chemical reaction will increase the rate of reaction. The presence of a black hole at the center of a galaxy will affect the motion of stars within the galaxy. Changes in the Earth’s magnetic field will result in changes in the frequency and intensity of earthquakes. The introduction of non-native species to an ecosystem will disrupt the food chain and result in decreased biodiversity. The use of written language will result in the development of more complex societies. An increase in the minimum wage will result in decreased unemployment rates within a society.

For additional inspiration, you can find more samples of student’s hypotheses in research.

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Learning Materials

How to write a research paper hypothesis: step-by-step.

Updated: March 29, 2024

Crafting the perfect hypothesis is like setting the foundation for a skyscraper; it determines the strength and direction of your entire research project. Many researchers struggle with formulating a hypothesis that is clear, testable, and effective, often leading to confusion and flawed research outcomes. A research paper hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. This article will guide you through understanding the role of a hypothesis, the types available, key characteristics of a strong hypothesis, and provide a step-by-step approach to formulating your own, complete with practical examples.

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Understanding the role of a hypothesis in research papers.

In the realm of academic research, a hypothesis acts as a compass, guiding the direction and focus of scientific investigations. It is a tentative statement that proposes a potential explanation or predicts a relationship between variables, which the research then aims to support or refute. This pivotal role underscores the hypothesis's importance as it not only shapes the research design but also informs the data collection methods and analytical techniques to be employed. By setting clear expectations, it allows researchers to maintain a structured approach to their inquiry, ensuring that every step taken is aligned with the overarching research question.

The strength of a research paper often hinges on the robustness of its hypothesis. It serves as a foundation for argumentation , helping to weave a coherent narrative around the observed phenomena. A well-crafted hypothesis not only sparks curiosity but also enhances the study's credibility by providing a clear path to validation or refutation. Whether the outcome supports or contradicts the hypothesis, each result contributes valuable insights into the field, pushing the boundaries of knowledge and prompting further questions and studies.

Types of Hypotheses in Academic Research

Understanding the various types of hypotheses is crucial for researchers to tailor their investigations appropriately. The null hypothesis generally asserts that no significant relationship exists between the studied variables, serving as a default position that the research seeks to challenge. On the other hand, the alternative hypothesis proposes a specific, testable relationship between variables, suggesting that a change in one affects the other. These hypotheses are foundational in statistical testing, helping researchers draw meaningful conclusions from their data.

Besides these common types, researchers might encounter or employ statistical hypotheses , which are used extensively in quantitative research to make inferences about populations based on sample data. In qualitative studies, exploratory hypotheses can guide the thematic analysis of data without requiring statistical validation. Each type of hypothesis serves a distinct purpose and choosing the right one depends critically on the research question, methodology, and the nature of the data being analyzed.

Key Characteristics of a Strong Hypothesis

Crafting a strong hypothesis is an art that requires careful consideration of several key characteristics. Firstly, a hypothesis must be testable ; it should propose a relationship that can be supported or refuted through empirical evidence. Secondly, it should be specific and clear , avoiding any ambiguity about what is being proposed. This clarity ensures that the research can be replicated and that the findings are interpretable within the established context of the study.

Additionally, a robust hypothesis should be relevant to the current knowledge in the field, addressing a genuine gap or a contested issue. It should also be simple , focusing on a single issue or a small set of variables to avoid complexity that could compromise the study's clarity and execution. By adhering to these criteria, researchers can formulate hypotheses that not only enhance the credibility of their work but also contribute significantly to advancing knowledge within their discipline.

Step-by-Step Guide to Formulating Your Hypothesis

Formulating a hypothesis for your research paper begins with identifying a clear and focused research question. This question should stem from an observed gap in existing knowledge or a specific interest in exploring a new aspect of a topic. The clearer your question, the more focused your hypothesis will be . For instance, if you are studying the effects of sleep on academic performance, your research question might be, "How does sleep duration affect the academic performance of high school students?"

Once you have your research question, the next step is to construct a hypothesis that makes a testable prediction related to your question. A good hypothesis is not just a random guess; it should be based on existing theories, literature, or previous research findings. It's important to ensure that your hypothesis is specific and measurable . For example, rather than hypothesising "Sleep affects academic performance," a more precise hypothesis would be, "High school students who sleep for at least 8 hours nightly will perform better academically than those who sleep less than 6 hours."

Finally, refine your hypothesis to ensure clarity and testability. Avoid technical jargon and make sure it is understandable to anyone who reads it. Moreover, your hypothesis should be falsifiable —this means there should be a possibility to prove it wrong through testing. This critical aspect allows for the scientific exploration and validation of your hypothesis. For example, you could refine the previous hypothesis to, "High school students who sleep for at least 8 hours nightly will score at least 10% higher on mathematics exams than students who sleep less than 6 hours."

Examples of Well-Formulated Research Hypotheses

An example of a well-formulated hypothesis in the field of environmental science might be, "Exposure to high levels of air pollution reduces lung capacity in adults over 40 years of age." This hypothesis is strong because it is clear, specific, and based on the variable of air pollution levels and measurable impact on lung capacity. It directly addresses a specific aspect of environmental health, making it both relevant and potentially impactful for further research.

In the realm of sociology, a well-constructed hypothesis could be, "Teenagers who use social media more than 3 hours a day are more likely to experience anxiety than those who use it less than 1 hour a day." This hypothesis is effective because it specifies the conditions under which the study is conducted and what is being measured. It sets a clear expectation for the relationship between social media usage and anxiety, which can be empirically tested through observational or experimental methods.

Understanding the Null Hypothesis in Research

In the world of research, the null hypothesis plays a crucial role as the default position that assumes no relationship or effect between the variables being studied. This hypothesis posits that any observed differences or correlations are purely due to chance. For example, if researchers are examining whether a new teaching method improves student test scores, the null hypothesis would state that there is no difference in scores between students who experienced the new method and those who did not. This assumption is critical because it sets a standard for evidence that must be met to demonstrate an actual effect, thus safeguarding against false positives.

The importance of the null hypothesis extends beyond just being a starting point for statistical testing. It is fundamental in determining the statistical significance of the results. The process involves comparing the observed data against what would be expected if the null hypothesis were true. If the data significantly deviates from this expectation, researchers may reject the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative hypothesis, suggesting a potential effect or relationship. This method ensures that findings are not just due to random variation and provides a systematic way to test theories and predictions in scientific research.

The Role of the Alternative Hypothesis

The alternative hypothesis is essentially the counterclaim to the null hypothesis in research. It proposes that there is a genuine effect or relationship between variables, which the research aims to prove. For instance, if the null hypothesis states that a new drug has no effect on disease symptoms, the alternative hypothesis would claim that the drug does improve the symptoms. The role of the alternative hypothesis is pivotal as it directs the research towards demonstrating an effect or relationship that contradicts the null hypothesis.

When researchers set out to test hypotheses, they are essentially testing the validity of the alternative hypothesis by trying to reject the null hypothesis. This approach is based on the principle of proof by contradiction, commonly used in hypothesis testing:

• If significant evidence is found against the null hypothesis, it supports the alternative hypothesis.
• If the null hypothesis cannot be rejected, it suggests that the alternative hypothesis may not be correct. This methodological framework ensures that research findings are not accepted without rigorous testing, thereby enhancing the reliability of scientific conclusions.

Defining Variables in Your Research Hypothesis

Defining variables clearly in a research hypothesis is a critical step that shapes the entire study. Variables are elements that can vary or change within a study, and they are typically classified into independent and dependent variables. The independent variable is what the researcher manipulates or changes to observe the effects on the dependent variable, which is the outcome being measured. For example, in a study investigating the impact of study hours on exam scores, 'study hours' would be the independent variable, and 'exam scores' would be the dependent variable.

Properly defining these variables allows researchers to precisely measure and analyze the relationships between them. Here are key considerations for defining variables:

• Specificity : Variables should be defined in a way that leaves no ambiguity about what is being measured.
• Measurability : Variables need to be quantifiable so that they can be accurately measured.
• Relevance : They must be directly related to the research question to ensure that the study remains focused and relevant. By adhering to these criteria, researchers can ensure that their hypotheses are testable and that their findings can be robustly defended.

Enhance Your Research with Samwell.ai's Writing Assistance

Samwell.ai is designed to revolutionize the way you approach academic writing, particularly when it comes to crafting a robust hypothesis for your research paper. With its AI-powered writing assistance, Samwell.ai ensures that your hypothesis is not only strong but also adheres to the highest standards of academic integrity. The platform offers advanced plagiarism checks to guarantee that your work is original and free from unintentional plagiarism. This is crucial in maintaining the credibility of your research across academic circles. Additionally, Samwell.ai provides tailored research resources, allowing you to access authentic sources and integrate accurate in-text citations easily. These tools are particularly beneficial in formulating hypotheses that are well-supported by empirical evidence and existing literature.

Utilising Samwell.ai can significantly enhance the quality of your research papers. Here are some of the ways how:

• Plagiarism checks : Ensure your hypothesis and entire research paper are original, boosting your confidence before submission.
• Tailored resources : Access to a vast database of sources that can provide the necessary backing for your hypothesis.
• Citation assistance : Automatically formats citations according to different academic styles, reducing the hassle and helping you focus more on the content of your research.

By integrating these features, Samwell.ai not only simplifies the writing process but also elevates the academic rigour of your work. Whether you're a student or a professional, Samwell.ai is equipped to assist you in navigating the complexities of academic writing, making the task of hypothesis formulation and research writing more efficient and less daunting.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is an example of a research hypothesis.

An example of a research hypothesis in the field of environmental science could be, "Exposure to high levels of air pollution reduces lung capacity in adults over 40 years of age." This hypothesis is specific, clear, and based on measurable variables such as air pollution levels and lung capacity, directly addressing a specific aspect of environmental health.

How to write a hypothesis in a research paper?

Writing a hypothesis in a research paper involves several steps: start by identifying a clear and focused research question, construct a testable prediction related to that question, and ensure the hypothesis is specific, measurable, and falsifiable. For example, instead of hypothesising "Sleep affects academic performance," a more precise hypothesis would be, "High school students who sleep for at least 8 hours nightly will perform better academically than those who sleep less than 6 hours."

What is an example of a research question with a hypothesis?

An example of a research question with a corresponding hypothesis could be: Research Question: "How does sleep duration affect the academic performance of high school students?" Hypothesis: "High school students who sleep for at least 8 hours nightly will score at least 10% higher on mathematics exams than students who sleep less than 6 hours."

How do you identify a hypothesis in a research paper?

Identifying a hypothesis in a research paper involves looking for a specific, testable prediction about the relationship between variables. It is usually presented in a declarative sentence that proposes a potential explanation or predicts a relationship, and it should be clear, specific, and falsifiable. The hypothesis often appears in the introduction or methodology sections, setting the stage for the research question and the expected outcomes.

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